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Project Reports

• BioInspired Mimetic Cluster Synthesis: Bridging the Structure and Reactivity of Biotic and Abiotic Iron-Sulfur Motifs

  Bioinspired synthetic approaches are being utilized to bridge the gap between Fe-S minerals and highly evolved biological Fe-S metalloenzymes. Biology builds complex Fe-S clusters by first synthesizing standard Fe-S clusters and then modifying them through radical chemistry catalyzed by radical SAM enzymes. In an effort to examine hypothetical early biocatalysts, we probing simple Fe-S motifs capable of coordinating Fe-S clusters in aqueous solutions that can initiate radical chemistry.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 7.1 7.2

• Astronomical Observations of Planetary Atmospheres and Exoplanets

  This task encompasses remote-sensing observations of Solar System and extrasolar planets made by the VPL team. These observations, while providing scientific exploration in its own right, also allow us to test our planetary models and help advance techniques to retrieve information from the astronomical data that we obtain. This can include improving our understanding of the accuracy of inputs into our models, such as spectral databases. This year we made and/or analyzed observations of Mars, Venus and Earth taken by ground-based and spaceborne observatories, to better understand how well we can determine planetary properties like surface temperature and atmospheric composition, when a terrestrial planet is observed only as a distant point of light.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.2 2.2 7.2

• Detectability of Life

  Detectability of Life investigates the detectability of chemical and biological signatures on the surface of icy worlds, with a focus on spectroscopic techniques, and on spectral bands that are not in some way connected to photosynthesis.Detectability of life investigation has three major objectives: Detection of Life in the Laboratory, Detection of Life in the Field, and Detection of Life from Orbit.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.2 2.1 2.2 4.1 5.3 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.2

• AIRFrame Technical Infrastructure and Visualization Software Evaluation

  We have analyzed over four thousand astrobiology articles from the scientific press, published over ten years to search for clues about their underlying connections. This information can be used to build tools and technologies that guide scientists quickly across vast, interdisciplinary libraries towards the diverse works of most relevance to them.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.2

• Cosmic Distribution of Chemical Complexity

  The central theme of this project is to explore the possible connections between chemistry in space and the origins of life. We start by tracking the formation and development of chemical complexity in space from simple molecules such as formaldehyde to complex species including amino and nucleic acids. The work focuses on molecular species that are interesting from a biogenic perspective and on understanding their possible roles in the origin of life on habitable worlds. We do this by measuring the spectra and chemistry of analog materials in the laboratory, by remote sensing in small spacecraft and by analysis of extraterrestrial samples returned by spacecraft or that fall to Earth as meteorites. We then use these results to interpret astronomical observations made with ground-based and orbiting telescopes.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.1 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.4 4.3 7.1 7.2

• Biosignatures in Relevant Microbial Ecosystems

  In this project, PSARC team members explore the isotope ratios, gene sequences, minerals, organic molecules, and other signatures of life in modern environments that have important similarities with early earth conditions, or with life that may be present elsewhere in the solar system and beyond. Many of these environments are “extreme” by human standards and/or have conditions that are at the limit for microbial life on Earth.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 4.1 4.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.1 7.1 7.2

• Habitability of Icy Worlds

  Habitability of Icy Worlds investigates the habitability of liquid water environments in icy worlds, with a focus on what processes may give rise to life, what processes may sustain life, and what processes may deliver that life to the surface. Habitability of Icy Worlds investigation has three major objectives. Objective 1, Seafloor Processes, explores conditions that might be conducive to originating and supporting life in icy world interiors. Objective 2, Ocean Processes, investigates the formation of prebiotic cell membranes under simulated deep-ocean conditions, and Objective 3, Ice Shell Processes, investigates astrobiological aspects of ice shell evolution.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.1 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 5.1 5.3 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.2

• Biosignatures in Ancient Rocks

  The Earth’s Archean and Proterozoic eons offer the best opportunity for investigating a microbial world, such as might be found elsewhere in the cosmos. The ancient record on Earth provides an opportunity to see what geochemical signatures are produced by microbial life and how these signatures are preserved over geologic time. As part of our integrated plan, we will study geochemical, isotopic, and sedimentary signatures of life in order to understand the context in which these biosignatures formed.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.2

• Detectability of Biosignatures

  In this project VPL team members explore the nature and detectability of biosignatures, global signs of life in the atmosphere or on the surface of a planet. This year we completed and published our work on the build up and detectability of sulfur-based biosignatures in early Earth-like atmospheres, especially for planets orbiting stars cooler than our Sun. We also continued to explore the potential non-biological generation of oxygen and ozone in early Earth-like atmospheres, which could result in a “false positives” for photosynthetic life. In parallel, we worked with three simulators for telescopes that will one day be able to observe and determine the properties of extrasolar terrestrial planets, and used these simulators to calculate the relative detectability of gases produced by life.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.1 1.2 4.1 7.2

• Minerals to Enzymes: The Path to CO Dehydrogenase/Acetyl – CoA Synthase

  We have through NAI Director’s discretionary initiated a project to probing the structural determinants for nickel-iron-sulfur based reversible carbon monoxide oxidation. We are probing whether we can mimic the reactivity of carbon monoxide dehydrogenase to some extent by simple organic nesting and synthesis of nickel-iron-sulfur clusters using a model system we have developed.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 7.1 7.2

• Path to Flight

  Our technology investigation, Path to Flight for astrobiology, utilizes instrumentation built with non-NAI funding to carry out three science investigations namely habitability, survivability and detectability of life. The search for life requires instruments and techniques that can detect biosignatures from orbit and in-situ under harsh conditions. Advancing this capacity is the focus of our Technology Investigation.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 7.1 7.2

• Beyond the Drake Equation: Can We Find New Integrative Frameworks for Astrobiology Research?

  The Drake equation (in its current formulation) is a scheme used to estimate the number of detectable intelligent aliens around us. It does so by collecting together what is considered as the leading terms that represent what we know about astronomy, planetary science, biological evolution and social de-velopment. However, after ~50 years of rapid scientific progress, much of what we have discovered challenges us to either improve our estimates of the factors in Drake’s equation, re-work the equation according to current knowledge in the field of astrobiology, or change the question that we are asking and the way we ask them altogether.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 7.1 7.2

• Survivability of Icy Worlds

  Investigation 2 focuses on survivability. As part of our Survivability investigation, we examine the similarities and differences between the abiotic chemistry of planetary ices irradiated with ultraviolet photons (UV), electrons, and ions, and the chemistry of biomolecules exposed to similar conditions. Can the chemical products resulting from these two scenarios be distinguished? Can viable microbes persist after exposure to such conditions? These are motivating questions for our investigation.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 2.2 3.2 5.1 5.3 7.1 7.2

• Biosignatures in Extraterrestrial Settings

  The focus of this project is to explore indicators of life outside of Earth, both within the Solar System and on extrasolar planets. The work includes studies of the chemistry and composition of the Solar System, and the past history of conceivable sites for life in the Solar System. We also look for habitable planets outside the Solar System; work on developing new techniques to find and observe potentially habitable planets; and model the dynamics, evolution and current status of a variety of extrasolar planets.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 4.1 4.3 6.2 7.1 7.2

• Nitrate and Nitrate Conversion to Ammonia on Iron-Sulfur Minerals

  Conversion of nitrate and nitrite may have contributed to the formation of ammonia—a key reagent in the formation of amino acids—on the prebiotic Earth. Results suggest that the presence of iron mono sulfide facilitates the conversion of nitrate and nitrite. Nitrite conversion is, however, much faster than the conversion of nitrate.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 3.1 3.2 3.3 7.1 7.2

• Earth as an Extrasolar Planet

  Earth is the only known planet that can support life on its surface, and serves as our only example of what a habitable planet looks like. This task uses distant observations of the Earth taken from spacecraft combined with a sophisticated computer model of the Earth to understand the appearance and characteristics of a habitable planet. With our model, we can generate accurate simulations of the Earth’s brightness, color and spectrum, when viewed at different time-intervals, and from different vantage points. This year we used these simulations to understand how we might detect the presence of an ocean on an exoplanet using polarization, and the presence of a moon around a distant exoplanet using heat energy, rather than visible light.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.2 7.2

• Project 6: Application of Laboratory Experimentation to Flight Instrument Testing

  This project links our Astrobiological research program to an international (NASA and ESA) research program centers on using Svalbard Island, Norway, as a Mars Analogue Research Site. The research is a collaboration between the Carnegie Institution of Washington and NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. During the past summer a variety of instruments designed to be flown to Mars were tested under the cold, dry conditions provided by Svalbard.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 7.2

• Astrophysical Controls on the Elements of Life, Task 7: Update Catalog of Elemental Ratios in Nearby Stars

  Future surveys like Kepler for habitable planets will likely be limited to select regions of the sky. In anticipation, we have created the first maps of what the solar neighborhood looks like in the “light” of bio-essential elements such as C, N, O, Si and Fe. To make these maps, we painstakingly compiled and analyzed 25 years’ worth of measured data on 44 chemical elements in 1224 stars that are within 500 light-years of the Sun and potentially host habitable exoplanets. Our new catalog “the Hypatia Catalog“ and the first maps produced from it suggest there are certain directions on the night sky that show enhanced abundances of bio-essential elements. These “habitability hotspots” or “habitability windows” may be of use in current and future searches for Earth-like planets.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.1 7.2

• Deep (Sediment-Buried Basement) Biosphere

  The ocean crust comprises the largest aquifer on earth. Deep sediment cover provides an environ-ment for a unique biosphere hosting microorganisms surviving under extreme conditions. Frac-tured rock provides abundant surfaces that can be colonized by diverse microbes and water-rock reactions promote chemical conditions that influence key geochemical cycles within the Earth’s crust and oceans. Team members participated in a 14-day research cruise to study the sediment-buried basement (basaltic crust) biosphere, to provide unprecedented and unique insight into the mobility and origin of microorganisms within this remote biosphere.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 4.1 4.2 5.2 5.3 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.2

• Modelling Planetary Albedo & Biomarkers in Rocky Planets’/moons Spectra

  Using data from Kepler and new ground-based detections, Lisa Kaltenegger and Dimitar Sasselov have identified which confirmed and candidate planets orbit within the Habitable Zone and could provide environments for basic and complex life to develop. They have also developed atmosphere models for extrasolar planetary environments for different geological cycles and varied environments for the advent of complex life. The team modeled detectable spectral features that identify such planetary environments for future NASA missions like the James Webb Space Telescope.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.1 1.2 4.1 4.2 6.2 7.2

• Postdoctoral Fellow Report: Mark Claire

  I have studied how biology might have impacted Earth’s early atmosphere, and how the Sun’s light has changed with time. More specifically, I’ve modeled how enhanced release of biogenic sulfur gases in earlier periods of Earth history may have left clues in the geologic record, and compared these predictions to the data. Furthermore, I have made a model of what how the light from the Sun would appear at any planet or any time in the solar system.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.1 1.2 2.1 4.1 7.2

• Surface Chemistry of Iron-Sulfur Minerals

  The exposure of pyrite surfaces to energetic particle beams creates an activated surface that is capable of facilitating the reduction of nitrogen molecules to ammonia. Experimental results and complementary theoretical calculations indicates that the exposure of pyrite surfaces creates anomalously reduced iron atoms. The chemical state of the surface iron atoms is somewhat similar to iron in the active center of several key enzymes. The triple bond in dinitrogen sorbed onto these reduced surface iron atoms weakens, which is a key step in the conversion to ammonia, a key reagent in the formation of amino acids on the prebiotic Earth

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 3.1 3.2 3.3 7.1 7.2

• Postdoctoral Fellow Report: Steven Mielke

  This project seeks to resolve the long-wavelength limit of oxygenic photosynthesis in order to constrain the range of extrasolar environments in which spectral signatures of biogenic oxygen might be found, and thereby guide future planet detecting and characterizing observatories.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 5.1 6.1 6.2 7.2

• Stellar Radiative Effects on Planetary Habitability

  Habitable environments are most likely to exist in close proximity to a star, and hence a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the effect of the star on planetary habitability is crucial in the pursuit of an inhabited world. We looked at how the Sun’s brightness would have changed with time. We used models to study the effect of one very big flare on a planet with a carbon dioxide dominated atmosphere, like the early Earth’s, and found that these types of planets are well protected from the UV flux from the flaring star. We have also looked at the first quarter of Kepler data to study flare activity on “ordinary” cool stars, that have not been preselected for their tendency to have large flares. We find that these cool stars fall into two categories: stars that have long duration flares of several hours, but flare less frequently overall, and stars that have short duration flares, but more of them. In future work we will explore the comparative effect on a habitable planet of these two patterns of flaring activity.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.1 1.2 2.1 4.1 4.3 7.2

• The Subglacial Biosphere – Insights Into Life-Sustaining Strategies in an Extraterrestrial Analog Environment

  Sub-ice environments are prevalant on Earth today and are likely to have been more prevalent the Earth’s past during episodes of significant glacial advances (e.g., snow-ball Earth). Numerous metabolic strategies have been hypothesized to sustain life in sub-ice environments. Common among these hypotheses is that they are all independent of photosynthesis, and instead rely on chemical energy. Recently, we demonstrated the presence of an active assemblage of methanogens in the subglacial environment of an Alpine glacier (Boyd et al., 2010). The distribution of methanogens is narrowly constrained, due in part to the energetics of the reactions which support this functional class of organism (namely carbon dioxide reduction with hydrogen and acetate fermentation). Methanogens utilize a number of metalloenzymes that have active site clusters comprised of a unique array of metals. During the course of this study, we identified other features that were suggestive of other active and potentially relevant metabolic strategies in the subglacial environment, such as nitrogen cycling. The goals of this project are 1) identifying a suite of biomarkers indicative of biological CH4 production 2). quantifying the flux of CH4 from sub-ice systems and 3). developing an understanding how life thrives at the thermodynamic limits of life. This project represents a unique extension of the ABRC and bridges the research goals of several nodes, namely the JPL-Icy Worlds team and the ASU-Follow the Elements team.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 2.1 2.2 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.2

• Project 3C: Integration of Multiple Isotope Proxies to Study the Pre-GOE Oxygenation of the Earth

  The period 2.7 to 2.5 b.y. ago, the period leading you to the Great Oxidation Event (GOE), is becoming increasingly recognized as a time of major environmental change. A holistic understanding of the changes that occurred in microbial ecology, and their effects of the environment, are only possible by integrating multiple geochemical proxies. By simultaneously looking at C, O, S, Fe, Mo, and Sr isotopes, we develop a picture of extensive oxygenic photosynthesis, but approximate balance with reduced resevoirs such as reduced Fe and reduced volcanic gases, such that free oxygen did not yet become abundant on the planet. Although many workers have questioned a rise in oxygenic photosynthesis significantly before the GOE, these new data clearly indicate that this metabolism was widespread at least 400 m.y. before the GOE.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 4.1 5.3 6.1 7.1 7.2

• The Long Wavelength Limit for Oxygenic Photosynthesis

  Photosynthesis is process where plants and bacteria use solar energy to produce sugar and oxygen. It is also the only known process that produces signs of life (biosignatures) on a planetary scale. And, because starlight (or solar energy) is one of the most common sources of energy, it is expected that photosynthesis will be successful on habitable extrasolar planets. Our team is studying how photosynthetic pigments – the molecules that make photosynthesis possible – might function in unique or extreme environments on other planets. In our experiments, we use a bacteria called Acaryochloris marina to study how different photosynthetic pigments work. This bacterium is useful for our research because it uses a pigment known as chlorophyll d instead of chlorophyll a, which is more common on our planet. Chrolophyll a works well in Earth’s environment but, by studying chlorophyll d, we can begin to understand how photosynthesis might work on planets with different environments than Earth. So far, our research is revealing that photosynthesis can occur quite efficiently in environments that are very different from our planet.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 3.2 4.2 5.1 5.3 6.2 7.2

• Stoichiometry of Life, Task 2a: Field Studies – Yellowstone National Park

  Field work and subsequent laboratory analysis is an integral part of following the elements. One of our field areas is the hot spring ecosystems of Yellowstone, which are dominated by microbes, and where reactions between water and rock generate diverse chemical compositions. These natural laboratories provide numerous opportunities to test our ideas about how microbes respond to different geochemical supplies of elements. Summer field work and lab work the rest of the year includes characterizing the natural systems, and controlled experiments on the effects of changing nutrient and metal concentrations (done so as to not impact the natural features!).

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.1 6.2 7.2

• The VPL Life Modules

  The Life Modules team at VPL works on developing models of how biological processes – such as photosynthesis, breathing, and decay of organic materials – work on a planetary scale. When this is combined with the work of the atmospheric and planetary modeling teams, we are able simulate how these processes impact the atmosphere and climate of a planet. This information, then, helps us understand how might be able to detect whether or not a planet has life by looking at its atmosphere and surface. The Life Modules team has engaged in previous work coupling early Earth biogeochemistry and 1D models in the VPL’s suite of planetary models. Current work now focuses on biosphere models that simulate geographic distributions of life adapted to different climate zones and capable of coupling to 3D general circulation models (GCMs). Current project areas are: 1) development of a model of land-based ecosystem dynamics suitable for coupling with GCMs and generalizable for alternative planetary parameters, and 2) coupling of an ocean biogeochemistry model to GCMs.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.2 6.1 6.2 7.2

• Project 4C: Iron Isotope Geochemistry in Biogenic Magnetite-Bearing Lake Sediments

  The production of magnetite as a byproduct of dissimilatory microbial iron oxide reduction (DIR) has been hypothesized to be an important pathway in the early diagenesis of chemically-precipitated sediments on early Earth, leading ultimately to the preservation of large quantities of magnetite in banded iron formations (BIFs). A significant fraction of the magnetite (and other Fe-bearing minerals such as siderite and pyrite) in BIFs is isotopically light, likely due to Fe isotope fractionation between biogenic Fe(II) and residual Fe(III) oxides. Only one modern environmental setting has reported possible in situ magnetite formation resulting from DIR: the Bay of Vidy in Lake Geneva, Switzerland. Previous work has characterized a widespread magnetic susceptibility anomaly in the Bay of Vidy sediments stemming from an influx of amorphous Fe(III) oxide from a nearby sewage treatment plant, and determined the presence of fine-grained magnetite apparently produced via DIR. In this study, we examined the Fe isotope composition of distinct pools of solid-phase Fe contained in sediments from the Bay of Vidy. Significant Fe(III) reduction has taken place, resulting in the reduction of nearly all reactive (non-silicate) Fe. Very little Fe isotope variation was observed within sediment Fe pools, including magnetite. The lack of sediment heterogeneity, along with the highly reduced nature of the sediments, suggests that DIR has carried through to completion in this deposit. The absence of spatial Fe redox gradients accompanying complete Fe(III) reduction has prevented the segregation of Fe isotopes during microbial reduction. This case study provides a basis for interpreting instances in the rock record where DIR was active but no Fe isotope fractionation was preserved.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 4.1 7.2

• Remote Sensing of Organic Volatiles in Planetary and Cometary Atmospheres

  We developed state-of-the-art spectroscopic methods to analyze our extensive infrared database of Mars and cometary spectra. In the last two years, we acquired the deepest and most comprehensive search for biomarkers on Mars using powerful infrared high-resolution spectrometers (CRIRES, NIRSPEC, CSHELL) at high-altitude observatories (VLT, Keck-II, NASA-IRTF respectively). In order to analyze this unprecedented wealth of data, we developed highly automated and advanced processing techniques that correct for bad-pixels/cosmic-rays and perform spatial and spectral straightening of anarmophic optics data with milli-pixel precision. We also constructed line-by-line models of the ν7 band of ethane (C₂H₆), the ν₃ and ν₂ bands of methanol (CH₃OH), we compiled spectral information for H₂O and HDO using 5 databases (BT2, VTT, HITEMP, HITRAN and GEISA), and compiled spectral information NH₃ using 4 databases (BYT2, TROVE, HITRAN and GEISA). These great advancements have allowed us to understand the infrared spectrum of planetary bodies with unprecedented precision.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 4.1 7.1 7.2

• Project 5B: Magnesium Isotope Fractionation Between Calcite and Aqueous Mg

  The isotopic composition of Mg in carbonate is of interest to studies on paleo environments because of the potential for constraining temperatures, vital effects, and Mg fluxes associated with precipitation of carbonate minerals. Indeed, Mg isotope fractionation during inorganic carbonate precipitation is important because this serves as the baseline for interpreting the Mg isotope variations and inferred fluid isotope compositions for both abiogenic and biogenic carbonate. We report the results of Mg-bearing calcite synthesis studies used to constrain the fractionation of Mg isotopes during calcite precipitation. The results provide the baseline data needed to interpret Mg-bearing carbonates from the early Earth, as well as carbonates that are likely to be found on Mars.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 4.1 7.1 7.2

• Project 5C: Growth of Ca-Mg Carbonates in the Presence of Dissolved Hydrogen Sulfide – in Situ and AFM Studies

  Dissolved hydrogen sulfide, one of the major products of bacterial sulfate reduction can promote crystallization of Ca-Mg-carbonates and dolomite. Hydrogen sulfide can be adsorbed strongly on the surfaces of Ca-Mg-carbonates, which can catalyze dehydration of surface Mg-water complexes and promote Mg incorporation into the Ca-Mg-carbonates and dolomite.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 7.1 7.2

• Stoichiometry of Life, Task 4: Biogeochemical Impacts on Planetary Atmospheres

  Oxygenation of Earth’s early atmosphere must have involved an efficient mode of carbon burial. In the modern ocean, carbon export of primary production is dominated by fecal pellets and aggregates produced by the animal grazer community. But during most of Earth history the oceans were dominated by unicellular, bacteria-like organisms (prokaryotes) causing a substantially altered biogeochemistry. In this task we experiment with the marine cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. as a model organism and test its aggregation and sinking speed as a function of nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus, iron) limitation. We have found so far that aggregation and sinking of these minute cyanobacteria is influenced by the concentration of nutrients in the growth medium.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 4.1 4.2 5.2 6.1 7.2

• Project 5E: Disordered Dolomite Crystallization From Media Containing Agar Gel and Halophilic Bacteria

  Ca-Mg-carbonates ranging from Mg-calcite to Mg-dolomite can be synthesized in presence of halophilic bacteria with agar media and agar media only. Extracellular polysaccharides adsorbed on surfaces can catalyze dolomite formation because of strong hydrogen bonding between the polysaccharides and the carbonate surface. This study provides insight into the effect of similar polysaccharides produced by microorganisms on dolomite formation. Low-temperature Ca-Mg-carbonate solid solution with continuous composition between calcite and dolomite could be a potential biosignature, because it requires catalysts like polysaccharides.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 7.1 7.2

• Project 5F: Roles of Extracellular Polysaccharides From Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria in Governing Dolomite Composition and Crystallization

  Ca-Mg-carbonates ranging from Mg-calcite to Mg-dolomite can be synthesized in presence of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) excreted by sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB). The role of EPS in catalyzing dolomite formation is similar to the agar-bearing systems, because polysaccharides are the major components in EPS. Low-temperature dolomite and Ca-Mg-carbonates with continuous compositional variations between calcite and dolomite could be potential biosignatures, because they require catalysts like polysaccharides.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 7.1 7.2

• Project 7B: Development of a Laser Ablation, Electron-Impact Miniature Mass Spectrometer (LA-EI-MMS) for in Situ Chemical and Isotopic Composition and Age Determinations of Martian Rocks

  A prototype of laser ablation-miniature mass spectrometer (LA-MMS) instrument for geochemical and age dating of rocks on the surface of extraterrestrial bodies is being developed in this project. In the LA-MMS method the rock sample is ablated by a laser and the neutral species produced are analyzed using the JPL-invented MMS. The neutral atoms ablated by a pulsed laser from the rock are ionized by electron impaction; the resulting ions of different masses are then spatially dispersed along the focal plane of the magnetic sector of the miniature mass spectrometer (MMS) and measured in parallel by a modified CCD array detector capable of detecting ions directly. Chemical analysis and high precision isotope ratios of elements have been measured in various rock samples by LA-MMS. Work on the measurement of absolute age of these rock samples based on K-Ar radiogenic technique is in progress.

  ROADMAP OBJECTIVES: 2.1 7.2